Double Bass Compendium for the Classroom
Bruce W. Okrainec

Introduction

 The intent of this article is to bring forward issues concerning the double bass that will be helpful to the string teacher in the class setting. Most string teachers are violinists, and this ultimately serves the majority of students, who are again violinists. However, the lower strings, particularly the double basses, are then not afforded expert knowledge to the same extent Slatford cites the ratio of violinists to bassists entering college to be about twenty to one (Slatford, 1984). I am assuming the ratio is similar upon leaving college.

This article will address the needs of the string teacher (most likely a violinist) who may not be comfortable teaching the double bass. This article is not a methodology for the bass. Rather, it is a'rule of thumb' guide to assist the string teacher whose first instrument is not the double bass.

 Selecting your Bass Students

 Most students begin their study of the double bass in the school music program. Rarely does a student start studying the bass in the private studio (Lane, 1992). The instrument's relative unpopularity may be a consequence of its size, sound, or perhaps the unavailability of teachers. Regardless, "Good bass players remain a scarce commodity. Many youth orchestras have less than their full complement..." (Slatford, 1984, p. 66).

When assessing students to play this instrument, Lane (1992) suggests you "look for students of at least average height, and of above average intelligence" (p. 63). Slatford (1984) believes "a good double bassist needs above all else an excellent ear; many small girls make first class players..." (p. 66). Lacy (1969) wisely advocates that "a desire to play the string bass is probably the most important attribute of the beginning bassist" (p. 85).

If you must recruit bassists from other string sections, look first to your cellos (provided you have an abundance of good cellists). The bows of each instrument are held similarly, and likewise so is the movement of the left hand and vibrato (Lane, 1992). "Cellists [have] many advantages over any other musician beginning to study the bass" (Graves, 1986, p. 30). However, do not make the double bass a repository for cellists or violinists who have difficulty with their present instruments, as they will not be successful here either (Lacy, 1969; Lane, 1992). "It is still widely believed that the bass is an instrument for those with no aptitude for the violin" (Slatford, 1984, p. 66).

Challenge and treat you bass students as you would you other string students. "If you set lower standards for your bassists, you will get less able players" (Lane, 1992, p. 63). Expect the same standards as you would for your violinists.

Standing/Sitting

Take the issue of supporting the instrument seriously. Hurst (1985) states, "year after year, I observe bass students with bizarre, and even grotesque techniques for approaching and holding the instrument Holding and balancing the bass ...and other related movements must have expert guidance..." (p. 52). Although there are fundamentally two methods of supporting/holding the double bass, standing or sitting, there has been considerable debate among professionals regarding the advantages of each position over the other.

The vertical size of the double bass logically lends one to assume that the player should stand along side of it. However, a perfect and exact description of the posture for standing with the instrument is somewhat elusive. Gary Karr states that holding the instrument is "a very challenging problem for all string instrument players and one which never seems to disappear" (Karr cited in D. Neubert, 1988, p. 52). Karr does suggest that "the best position with the double bass is one which allows the player to move around the entire fingerboard with ease. Most players ...hold the double bass so as to favor only one part of the fingerboard - mostly the lower positions. This is because most methods start in the lower positions" (Karr cited in D. Neubert, 1988, p. 52). Proponents of standing quote Karr, "[standing] develops a more complete body control in the playing of the double bass. I think it is very necessary to utilize every ounce of body weight in order to obtain the best sound possible" (Karr cited in Green, 1973, p. 35). David Walter (1982) writes "the first and most important rule for the bass player is that he must practice standing up..." (p. 42). Green (1973) states "the standing position is possibly most desirable for reasons of personal expression, although the sitting position may be more efficient (p. 35). "Ideally, all bass players in a school orchestra should stand while they perform ...realistically though, it is better to have orchestra players seated ...the idealism of standing doesn't go very far with a player who is tired and restless" (Robinson, 1990, p. 71).

Students show fatigue by "slouching, hanging over the bass, or [otherwise] holding the instrument at an unbalanced angle. As students become tired, sitting on a stool helps balance the instrument" (Gillespie, 1992, p. 66). The British bassist, Rodney Slatford, suggests "many habitually sitting bass players ... resent being castigated for playing in a position that they find both comfortable, relaxed, and practical" (Walter, 1982, p. 44).

I wish to encourage you to teach your student both methods. Standing does allow for greater body movement, however your bassists should not be forced to stand because of the unavailability of stools. The stools you make available should have adjustable heights ranging from 26 to 32 inches, and a large hoop near the base to use as a foot rest (Walter, 1982).

How to Stand.

 When teaching your students to stand with the double bass, be sure that their body weight is balanced, that is not concentrating on one side or another. Instead, their 'stance' should allow them to shift their body weight from side to side as if they were a tennis player standing prepared. The instrument is in front of the player with its end pin acting similar to that of a third leg of a tripod. The bass should lean into the player and likewise be able to pivot forward and backward. This method is often referred to as the triangle or letter 'A' configuration, and presents the fewest problems to students (Hurst, 1985). It is important that the "placement of the feet and general contour of the body is relaxed, and never forced" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53). Similarly, it has been suggested that "the student stand with feet spread, weight on the right foot, and left foot pointed away from right at a 45 degree angle. The upper right comer of the bass contacts the student at the left hip bone, with the bass leaning toward the student and the student bending slightly at the waist to lean into the bass" (H. Neubert, 1980, p. 10). Within this framework, the rotation of the instrument and the height of the end pin need to be considered when choosing the appropriate position. When adjusting the height of the instrument, do take into account the comfort level of the left shoulder and arm while playing in the lowest position. However, most importantly, the right arm should be able to maintain the bow at a 90 degree angle against the strings from tip to frog at any point on the string between the fingerboard and the bridge (Hurst, 1985). "The key here is the proximity of the neck of the student to the neck of the bass, [and] ...the height of the instrument is crucial to bowing accessibility..." (Hurst, 1985, p. 53). Do keep in mind that some pedagogues advocate extending the end pin so that the height of the bass allows the bow to fall 'naturally' close to the bridge (one to two inches) so that the player will not have to lean over the instrument in order to play close to the bridge (Murray, 1991). This will reduce any potential for back pain.

Sitting.

Once your students can stand comfortably and appropriately with their instrument, the adjustment to the sitting position should be easy and quite natural. Rodney Slatford states "the posture that I find most acceptable is seated on a medium height kitchen stool, feet firmly planted on the ground or on the rungs of the stool, the bass facing fairly straight in front of me. I place both arms around the instrument ... [and] if I wish to involve a little more body weight, I lean forward and add to the tone easily" (Slatford cited in Walter, 1982, p. 44).

Besides comfort, Gillespie (1992) describes sitting as freeing the student form "supporting the instrument with the left hand ...and the left hand is [then] free to shift and vibrate" (p. 66). Stevenson suggests the sitting position allows the student to concentrate on developing playing skills without the distraction "of learning to balance the bass in the standing position" (Neher, 1995, p. 46).

A study comparing two similar approaches of holding the bass while seated on a stool was conducted by Knut Guettler in 1992. Using electromyography, Guettler found that when the instrument was held like a cello (the belly of the instrument facing more or less straight forward), "more stress was produced on the right shoulder than on the left, whereas the muscles on both sides are more equally stressed when the instrument is turned slightly to the right" (Guettler, 1992, p. 309). The above study suggests that if a students "shoulder is causing problems, a slight rotation of the instrument is likely to have a good effect" (Guettler, 1992, p. 309).

Many subtle factors need to be taken into consideration when finding the most appropriate playing position for each individual. "A student prone to tension in the left thumb may best be served sitting on a stool, while a student prone to right arm tension often is best served standing .... Because every human body is different, the teacher must take responsibility to help students determine the best options" (Aaron, 1996, p. 60).

Sitting and standing with the double bass appear to be considered by many professionals as more or less equal. The issue of whether to stand or sit seems to be argued along lines of a contextual basis, that is, stand for solos, sit in orchestra. As students are generally taught and concentrate their efforts on one playing position, do promote experience and interest in the 'other' position. Dennis (1984) examined three different methods of supporting/holding the bass on muscle tension and performance quality (two methods of standing and one method of sitting were explored). Using forty university volunteer double bass students, Dennis found little difference in muscle tension (as measured by electromyography) and little difference in performance quality between the three methods of holding/supporting the bass.

Double Bass Bows

If you are a string player, I am sure you will agree that the importance of the bow cannot be overstated, after all it is the implement responsible for producing our sound. The double bass is unique among the string family in that it has two distinct bows: the French bow and the German bow. It appears that "one continued the tradition of the viol family, the other the violin family" (Walter, 1983 p. 28). Similarly, Green states "the German style was adopted from the viol family. The French style was adopted from the present violin family" (Green, 1973, p. 34).

The existence of two types of bows has generated substantial debate among bassists as to which method is superior. The subjective analysis has tended to conclude that "the weaker aspects of the two bows can be mastered by a competent bassist" (Green, 1973, p. 34). Walter states, "it must be stated unequivocally that players of both bows are able to overcome the inherent disadvantages of one or the other" (Walter, 1983 p. 29).

So which bow do I teach? Walter suggests that "the beginning bass student who has played no string instrument earlier on be offered the German [bow] ...[as it] promises quicker development technically and musically" (Walter, 1983 p. 29). This opinion is corroborated by Sankey "for youngsters the German bow will present fewer problems of endurance and give much quicker results in terms of sound" (Sankey cited in Walter, 1980 p. 22). Ellison offers the following advice: "1) Teachers whose principal instrument is the bass - start your students on either bow. 2) Teachers whose principal instrument is not the bass - teach the German bow exclusively!" (Ellison cited in Walter, 1983, p. 48). Not all agree that the appeal of the German bow is so overwhelming. "Dr. Allan Dennis of the University of Southwestern Louisiana writes, It is simply easier to teach the French hold to a heterogeneous class of violinists, violists, cellists, and bassists, than to teach the German hold..." (Dennis cited in Walter, 1983 p. 48). If both bows are at your disposal, do teach the bow you know best. However, do take ,into consideration that your students may study privately, and that it would be beneficial that they be taught the bow that the prospective private teacher uses (Gillespie, 1992). 

French Bow, If the reader (string teacher) is a violinist, be advised that the violin bow grip will not suffice for the double bass. In this regard, Paul Ellison writes "my experience has been that these teachers teach French bow like [it is] a big violin bow, which it is not" (Ellison cited in Walter, 1983 p. 48). Therefore, be careful not to apply violin technique to the double bass. Specifically, the use of the fourth finger positioned on top of the stick of the violin bow. Instead, the little finger should be placed in the middle area of the frog (Bradetich, 1987).

The French bow is held similar to that of the cello bow (Hurst, 1985). The student's fingers should not have spaces between them any larger than the hand would have when naturally resting at your side. For the beginning student, the spaces between the first and second finger is often too large. Murray is in agreement with me, "I often see the first finger separated from the second and extended toward the middle of the bow ...The first finger ought to be as close as possible to the second" (Murray, 1991 p. 84). The student may be attempting to create additional leverage by spreading the fingers, however this will only make the hand tense and "a tensed hand gives a tight sound, not a big sound" (Brehm, 1980 p. 28). Do not allow your students to simply grab the bow and lock their fingers in an uncomfortable position (Murray, 1991). Rather, the fingers must have good contact with the bow, or as Ellison writes "non-bassists [string teachers] should have the stick go considerably more into the hand, with the fingers all making contact with the top of the stick" (Ellison cited in Walter, 1980 p. 22). Put yet another way, "Be sure that beginners' fingers are sufficiently over the side of the bow. The fingers should be fairly square on the bow with the fourth finger perpendicular to the stick and the second finger far enough over ...to touch then ferule (Gillespie, 1992, p. 67).

Like the violin bow, the hair on the bass bow should not be flat against the string. The bow should have a slight angle with the wood leaning away from the bridge (towards the fingerboard). With the bow in hand and on the string, be sure that the wrist is straight (not bent). This is necessary so that the weight of the arm can be applied to the string. The teaching of the violinist bowing technique of an upward bend on the wrist is all too often misapplied to the double bass (Bradetich, 1987). "An upward bend to the wrist causes the bow to be carried across the string instead of engaging the string .... With a bent wrist the weight is lifted off the string ...resulting in a very minimal sound" (Bradetich, 1987, p. 61). Now what should follow is a fluid arm motion pulling the bow straight across the string at a 90 degree angle from the frog to the tip of the bow. Drawing the bow straight is the "most important prerequisite for drawing a full, even, consistent, warm, resonant, and expressive tone from the bass" (Bradetich, 1983 p. 30). This is underscored by Ellison, "probably the most important [element is to keep] ...the bow in a parallel line with and one half way between the bridge and the end of the fingerboard" (Ellison cited in Walter, 1980 p. 22). Please do not teach the concept that the bow arm works like a pendulum as this will only force "the bow to float up and down the string" (Bradetich, 1987, p. 60).

When moving the bow across the string on a down bow, young students tend to draw the frog of the bow towards their bodies (torso) and conversely on an up bow, the tip may point somewhere between 10 degrees and 45 degrees skyward. In order to correct this, an analogy or mental image might be used, that is, 'pull the frog towards the chair or floor' (Bradetich, 1983). Among beginning students, it is also not uncommon to find the bow traveling vertically up and down the string as the bow is drawn across the string. This should not be, "the bow must be drawn in a straight line so the contact point does not change during a given stroke" (H. Neubert, 1980, p. 10). It is only through your instructive comments and the use of a mirror (or videotape) that your students will receive the necessary feedback in order for good technique to emerge.

Sound Production. A question that I am often asked by directors of student orchestras is "How can I get more sound from my basses?". Like all other members of the string family, the production of sound on the double bass is regulated by three key elements; weight of the bow, speed of the bow, and contact point (the location of the bow on the string). "Violin students tend to use too little bow, and string teachers often over generalize the appropriate solution for violin technique and ask for more bow from their students who play the double bass" (Cross, 1989, p. 45). The bass bow however has a significant physical deficiency, namely it is proportionally the shortest and lightest in the string family, thus a different approach is required in order to play 'forte' (Hurst, 1985). Of the three critical elements cited earlier, the use of 'weight' becomes most important when playing louder as 'weight' results in the bow needing to be placed closer to the bridge in order to find the best resistance point (contact point) which thus in turn demands a slow moving bow (speed of bow) (Bradetich, 1987).

Conversely, when your bassists need to play softly, simply have them use less weight (Bradetich, 1987). This principle of tone production is supported by Gillespie (1992) as he states that "bass players [need to] pull the bow more slowly than an upper string player [in order] to produce a good tone. Rapid bowing is not effective with basses because it produces a superficial and glassy sound. It is better for a bass player to practice pulling the bow slowly toward the bridge with weight on it" (Gillespie, 1992, p. 68). If your bass students produce a pitch which is 'fuzzy' or otherwise indiscernible it is likely the bow is not drawn parallel to the bridge or the bow is traveling vertically on the string (Bradetich, 1995). Further, Karr (1996) is convinced that a fast bow will adversely affect intonation by "unwittingly encourag[ing] the left hand to shift more quickly than necessary" (p. 83). The use of a slow bow is so fundamental that Green (1978) suggests the professional and university student spend "at least ...30 minutes of [their] warm-up ... devoted to exercises that use a slow bow" (p. 20).

Another common problem among young bassists is the tendency to use too much bow speed when initially beginning a long note or slurred passage. The student will attempt to ration the remaining amount by reducing the weight and speed of the bow, thus producing an inconsistent tone (Bradetich, 1995). "Attacking and maintaining the sound of the string is similar to the other strings with one important exception: there is no release of the pressure of the bow once the string has been moved unless a specific musical effect is desired" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53). Do be aware that there is a significant difference in the amount of resistance experienced between the thinnest and thickest strings. This necessitates the use of "faster bow speed ...for higher pitches, [and] slower speed for lower pitches" in order to maintain the same dynamic quality of sound (Morelli, 1989, p. 60).

Most students I have worked with typically draw their bows too close to the fingerboard producing a sound which lacks fullness and intensity. Challenge your students to play their parts approximately two inches form the bridge. They and your ensemble will benefit greatly. Perhaps more importantly, provide a model for your students. Make recordings of the double bass available to them. "If a student does not know what a good sound is, how can he or she produce one?" (Bradetich, 1994, p. 62).

Left Hand

 The principal function of the left hand is to 'stop' the string. The shape of the left hand can be formed by placing the thumb in line behind the first or second finger. "Like the other strings, it is the balance of the hand that is crucial, not the forcing of fingers into a mold" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53). The contact of the fingers to the string (stoppage) is accomplished with "the pads of the fingers just below the tips, not the tips as in violin or viola" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53; Gillespie, 1992). The fingers themselves should be curved and remain curved in all the position of the fingerboard. "Curved fingers are stronger, faster, ...more precise and are easier to discern pitch with than collapsed fingers" (Bradetich, 1987, p. 61). However, "the angle of the fingers [should not be] as pronounced as on the other strings" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53). Collapsed fingers, that is the buckling or bending of the first joint just above the finger nail, is a common occurrence among students. Do keep in mind that it will take time to build the strength necessary to keep their fingers curved. Some of this difficulty, however, can be alleviated or reciprocally compounded by the string height (physical set-up) of the instrument (Aaron, 1992).

The long string length of the bass creates large physical distances between pitches, requiring "an athletic agility from the player that exceed that of the other smaller string instruments" (Karr, 1996, p. 83). In order to deal with the relatively large intervals on the string, left hand technique on the bass ...present the most diversity, challenge, and confusion to bass pedagogy" (Hurst, 1985, p. 53).

"Most American [and Canadian] bassists use the Simandl method fingerings" (Cameron, 1991, p. 48). This method "uses a whole-step configuration exclusively, with half steps between 1- 2 and 2- 4" (Cameron, 1991, p. 48). The distance between the first and second finger equal the distance between the second and fourth fingers. The interval between the first and fourth finger is a perfect fourth on the violin, but on the bass it is only a major second (whole step) (Gillespie, 1992). With this method "bassists [become] the only string players who do not use the third finger to stop notes" (Gillespie, 1992, p. 66), except in thumb position. This approach has been criticized as being too rigid and restrictive (Cameron). Thus there has been a movement by a few influential pedagogues to incorporate the use of the third finger in lower positions (Bradetich, 1995; Cameron, 1991; Cross, 1989). Karr asks, "Can you imagine a cellist not using the third finger in the lower positions? ...I encourage beginning players to use the third finger as soon as possible, even if it means using it in the lower positions" (Karr cited in D. Neubert, 1988, p. 53­54).

 Intonation. Begin by giving your basses ample opportunity to tune their instruments. For example, have the violins sustain concert A, while the basses play their 'harmonic A' located on the D string in third position, then allow them time to make the necessary adjustments (Gillespie, 1992).

As the left hand is responsible for intonation, the seemingly logical practice of using markers on the fingerboard to act as visual aids has been advocated (Coplin, 1969). Smith (1985, 1987) examined the effects of fingerboard markers on the intonation of beginning students and found that they "did not produce any significant gains in performance pitch accuracy and actually had an adverse effect on intonation when they were removed" (Smith, 1994, p. 77). Smith later conducted studies on the effects of'aural - oral pitch perception training' and found that "students who received this training made significant positive gains (p<.001) both in aural pitch discrimination and performance accuracy" (Smith, 1994, p. 78). These results suggest that pitch discrimination training would be a valuable asset to your string program.

Chiego (1994) states that the development of proper 'left hand formation' is critical to intonation In addition, Chiego suggests that the student be encouraged to check their "pitch with open strings and harmonics right from the beginning. The student will be much more consistent than if this is not done" (p. 87). Walter (1984) suggests some intonation problems are inherent to the nature of the instrument relative to the nature of our hands. These he, refers to as 'perilous notes' and suggests the student be apprised of them For example, "the A flat on the E string is often flat" (Walter, 1984, p. 58). On the other hand Karr (1996) states that "accurate intonation has nothing what so ever to do with the bass. It is born in the mind's ear long before it is heard on the double bass .... The process is quite simple. First, the player hears the desired note in his or her head and then tries to match the pitch of the double bass to that. Problems might occur by inadvertently forgetting the internal pitch" (p. 83). To improve intonation, Karr (1996) advocates scales be practiced daily. "If a student can play a scale in tune, he or she has overcome the major obstacle that bassists must confront every day...Nothing will perfect the intonation process more efficaciously than a metronome" (Karr, 1996, p. 85).

Vibrato   

Whether used to add luster to a young player's sound or refine an advanced student's musical interpretation, the importance of vibrato cannot be over emphasized (Harper, 1996). Vibrato has also been a thorny, complicated pedagogical issue. The famed violist, William Primrose, "urged the teacher not to teach vibrato, rather to let the natural inclination of the student prevail" (Walter, 1983, p. 49). Karr on the other hand states, "I introduce vibrato in the beginning of a student's development. It's important that the player exhibit a craving for vibrato as early as possible. I see no logical reason why the student must wait a long time before discovering vibrato" (Karr cited in D. Neubert, 1988, p. 54).

The best analogy for vibrato that I have come across is by Bradetich (1987) describing vibrato as "the same motion as shaking a can of pop" (p. 63) and indeed it is exactly this. Vibrato is initiated from the elbow and moves the entire forearm, wrist and hand as one unit (Bradetich, 1987). Or, vibrato can be thought of as a motion of the forearm with the elbow acting as a pivot. Either way, the fingers oscillate from the movement created by the forearm. "Vibrato motion should be large and slow and will seem huge to an upper string player" (Gillespie, 1992, p. 67). Although controversial, vibrato can be improved/enhanced with the metronome, using slow oscillations. Perhaps it is easier said than done?

Guettler (1992) states that "double bass students often have problems with developing an acceptable vibrato. The vibrato tends to sound cramped and uneven" (p. 303). Through electromyography (EMG) studies, Guettler found 'good vibrato' associated with the use of two muscles located on the lower half of the left shoulder blade; the teres major and teres minor. Perhaps more importantly, Guettler found vibrato problems associated with "a constant and intense activity in the biceps" (p. 305). Harper (1996) proposes that "a good, natural-sounding vibrato is unobtainable without understanding and using natural arm weight" (p. 65).

Keeping Bradetich's analogy in mind as a reference, the string teacher should be watchful of three problematic vibrato variations described by Schimek (1993). The first is generated from the hand, not the forearm These "oscillations are extremely rapid ...[resembling] more of a 'shake' than an up-and-down 'rocking' pivot" (Schimek, 1993, p. 65). The second deviation is caused by the elbow moving up and down instead of the forearm. Only extremely slow oscillations are possible (Schimek, 1993). The third incorrect variation results from the hand and forearm moving independently of each other and in opposite directions (Schimek, 1993). As this "motion is initiated at the hand" (p. 65), it can be corrected by reversing the process, that is initiating the vibrato from the forearm (Schimek, 1993).

Although it has been long established that the rate of vibrato by accomplished students and expert performers of violin, viola, and cello is 6.5 to 7 cycles per second (cps), very little research has been conducted on double bass vibrato (Thibeault, 1997). Thibeault however has analyzed recordings by twenty-six solo bassists and found a vibrato rate between 5 and 6.99 cps. The largest number of samples fell between 6.5 and 6.99 cps (Thibeault, 1997, p. 71). This latter figure indicates that all strings strive to use the same rate of vibrato to express their musical intent.

Thibeault's finding has implications for string education by defining a standard for the eager, goal-directed student. "String bass students should strive to achieve vibrato rates similar to violin, viola, and cello to attain a more professional sound" (Thibeault, 1997, p. 730.

Oscillation speed, however, is only one of three vibrato characteristics (Thibeault, 1997). The width of the oscillation and the "directional intent, or how the mean of the vibrato compares with the actual intended pitch" (Thibeault, 1997, p. 71) are the remaining two. Karr (1996) suggests; the use of a fast, narrow vibrato on the bottom pitch conveys 'great intensity' while the use of a wide vibrato in the middle of the pitch -'aggressiveness', and a relaxed vibrato on top of the pitch - 'lyrical poeticism'.

Maintaining your Basses

 Examine the double basses placed in the hands of your students, as many public school instruments are in need of at least a minor adjustment (Aaron, 1992). "Many string teachers who would never provide a violinist, violist, or cellist with such conditions inadvertently do so to double bassists" (Aaron, 1992, p. 83). This issue is of great pedagogical importance, as "the proper set-up for a double bass is not just a nice idea; it is critical to the proper teaching and playing of the instrument" (Robinson, 1990, p. 70). "Research shows that students choose an instrument primarily on the basis of how it sound, but students have a hard time producing a satisfying sound on a poorly adjusted bass causing frustration and loss of enthusiasm" (Gillespie, 1992, p. 67). "Of beginning bass students who drop out, many do so simply because instruments are so poorly adjusted" (lane, 1992, p. 64). "A poorly set-up bass cannot be played well by anyone. I would guess that many a potential bassist is lost for this reason alone" (Ellison cited in Walter, 1980, p. 23). At the very least, your bass students will find the playing experience less than enjoyable (Lane, 1992).

The most common deficiency in the physical set-up is 'high strings', which is caused by excessive bridge and/or nut height (Aaron, 1992; Lane, 1992; Robinson, 1990). Although less common, causes can include improper fingerboard angle (neck set) or an improper fingerboard dressing (lateral concavity) (Aaron, 1992). Take the issue of 'high strings' seriously, as it will force the student to adopt a compensating left hand posture, which leads to left hand fatigue, resulting in poor intonation and vibrato (Aaron, 1992).

Therefore, ensure that your double basses conform to the standards set by the Music Educators Association (American) and the National School Orchestra Association (American). These associations jointly recommend that the G-string and E-string heights do not exceed 9 mm. (3/8") and 11 mm. (7/16") respectively, above the end of the fingerboard (Aaron, 1992). Robinson (1990) suggests "a good rule of thumb is, the closer to the fingerboard, the better - as long as the string doesn't buzz" (p. 70). Stings adjusted close to the fingerboard offer a much needed mechanical advantage to the bassist as they "have larger problems to over come in strength, flexibility and coordination than any other instrumentalist" (Bradetich, 1995, p. 61).

Make your own adjustments.

 Assuming a competent repair person is unavailable or not affordable, you, the string teacher, can literally take the matter into your own hands and adjust the string height yourself, provided that you have ascertained the cause to be excessive bridge or nut height (Aaron, 1992). If the neck is warped, the instrument will need the attention of a competent repair person (Aaron, 1992).

If excessive string height is caused by excessive bridge height, lay the instrument on its back, loosen one string only, remove that string from the bridge, and proceed to deepen the grove on the bridge with a small round file (Aaron, 1992). The groove should be made circular and filed to "about 45 degrees toward the top and bottom faces" (Aaron, 1992, p. 83) of the bridge itself. Return the string to its place on the bridge, tune the string to its pitch and measure your results. This procedure may need to be repeated until the desired height is achieved. Continue in this manner with each string in turn.

Similarly, if the height above the end of the fingerboard is correct, but the entire fingerboard feels as if it is too high, then the nut grooves need to be lowered as they are too shallow (Aaron, 1992). "These grooves should be filed so that the strings_.[at the half position] almost touch the fingerboard" (Aaron, 1992, p. 84). This too can be accomplished by following the aforementioned procedure of removing one string at a time from the nut and filing each groove in turn (Aaron, 1992).

If, however, a competent repair person and funding are available, dispense with the aforementioned procedures and purchase bridge adjusters (Aaron, 1992; Gillespie, 1992; Robinson, 1990). Have these adjusters installed on the instrument's existing bridge. "They will immediately make life easier for your students .... [Although] widely accepted among professionals ...they are still lacking in many beginning string programs" (Robinson, 1990, p. 70).

Examine the double basses in your care, and consult with a repair person, if necessary. The first step to a student's success is a properly adjusted instrument (Aaron, 1992). 

Double Bass Accessories.

If we are to maximize the students' potential for sound production, the condition of the hair on the bow, the age of the instruments' strings, and the type of rosin used should be addressed. In my experience as a school clinician, I cannot remember seeing a school bow that was not in a desperate need of rehairing. As Robinson (1990) playfully asks "Are 37 hairs really better than none?" (p. 70). When drawn across the string, bows (horse hair) in poor condition do not have a sufficient number of microscopic barbs needed to effectively cause the string to vibrate. Horse hair is a natural, organic fiber and has a qualitatively limited life expectancy (it expires). Oh yes, "horse hair is preferred over nylon" (Robinson, 1990, p. 71).

Although "no temporal guideline [exists] for [the] replacement of strings" (Aaron, 1992, p. 84), remember that they also expire. When replacing strings, Robinson (1990) suggests "you buy Tomastik Super flexible strings, which are a good buy for the money" (p. 70).

The function of rosin is to increase the coefficient of friction between the hair follicles and the string. Purchase a rosin made for the bass, as there is a difference between bass rosins and rosins used by the other string instruments (Gillespie, 1992; Robinson, 1990). The typically softer and stickier bass rosin will aid the beginning students in drawing sound from their instruments.

Conclusion

The value of your school string programs to future professionals in the music 'field' is probably greater than you realize. For example, many of my colleagues have stated, if only in passing, that their first contact and experience with the double bass was in the school string programs. I suspect that this phenomena is not restricted to my acquaintances alone, that in fact it includes a large percentage of professional bassists working in North America. By its nature, the classroom setting is limiting, that is, the teacher can give 'only so much' to each individual student. Therefore, if you have a student who displays exceptional talent or interest, do encourage her/him to seek out a highly qualified private teacher for regular lessons with a'specialist' that the student will be carefully nurtured thus ensuring growth. "The double bass, like any other instrument must be learned with the guidance of a good teacher" (Young, 1984, p. 65). It is only through regular lessons with a'specialist' that the student will be carefully nurtured thus ensuring growth.

References

Aaron, Jeffrey, American String Teacher, Volume 46: 59-60, N4, 1996. Aaron, Jeffrey, American String Teacher, Volume 42: 83-84, N3, 1992. Bradetich, Jeff, American String Teacher, Volume 33, N1, 48-49, 1983. Bradetich, Jeff, American String Teacher, Volume 37: 60-63, N2, 1987. Bradetich, Jeff, American String Teacher, Volume 45, N4, 61-64, 1995. Brehm, Alvin, American String Teacher, Volume 30, N3, 28, 1980. Cameron, Michael, American String Teacher, Volume 41: 48-50, 1991. Chiego, John, American String Teacher, Volume 44, N1, 85-88, 1994. Coplin, Walter, Instrumentalist, Volume 24, 62-63, Dec. 1969. Cross, Samuel, Music Educators Journal, Volume 75: 44-47, Jan. 1989.

Dennis, Allen, Journal of Research in Music Education, Volume 32, N2, 95-103, 1984. Gillespie, Robert, The Instrumentalist, Volume 47: 66-69, Dec. 1992. Green, Barry, American String Teacher, Volume 23, N2, 34-38, 1973. Graves, Douglas, American String Teacher, Volume 36: N3, 29-3Q 1986. Guettler, Knut, Music Perception, Volume 9, N3, 303-310, 1992. Harper, Kenneth, American String Teacher, Volume 46, N3, 65-68, 1996. Hurst, Lawrence, American String Teacher, Volume 35: N3, 1985. Karr, Gary, American String Teacher, Volume 46, N2, 83-85, 1996. Lacy, Gene, The Instrumentalist, Volume 14: September, 83-85, 1969. Lane, Jonathan, American String Teacher, Volume 42: N1, 63-64, 1992. Morelli, Michael, American String Teacher, Volume 39, N2, 59060, 1989. Murray, David, American String Teacher, Volume 4 1: N4, 83-84, 1991. Neubert, David, American String Teacher, Volume 38: N3, 52-54, 1988.

Neubert, Henry, Woodwind, World-Brass and Percussion, Volume 19: N3, 10-11, 1980. Robinson, Paul, American String Teacher, Volume 40, N1, 70-71, 1990. Schimek, John, American String Teacher, Volume 43, N3, 65-66, 1993. Slatford, Rodney, The STRAD, Volume 95, 331-333, Sept., 1984. Smith, Connie, American String Teacher, Volume 44, N3, 77-78, 1994. Thibeault, Matthew, American String Teacher, Volume 47, Nl, 71-73, 1997. Young, David, Canadian Musician, Volume 6: N3, 65, 1984. Walter, David, American String Teacher, Volume 30, N3, 20-23, 1980. Walter, David, American String Teacher, Volume 33, NI, 28-29, 1983. Walter, David, American String Teacher, Volume 33, N4, 48-49, 1983. Walter, David, American String Teacher, Volume 34, N1, 58-59, 1984. Walter, David, American String Teacher, Volume 32, N4, 42-45, 1982.